Sunday, June 17, 2012
Tuesday, June 5, 2012
254 Camp Mulla
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Rihanna. They are releasing hit after hit, I just love the group.
it was founded by rapper Taio Tripper, Young Kass,
Super Producer K'Cous, Miss Karun, the lady with the coolest
Vocalist.
254 Top of the Topest +others
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| The Picture shows my top artist in the year 2012: Wahu, Prezzo, Redsan, Kriss Mmh baba, Shontel, P Square, Akon( Chop My money), Nonini, Just A Band, Camp Mulla, Collo, P Unit, Otopizzo, Size 8, Exodus, Alemba. |
Monday, April 16, 2012
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
Source features
These are related to the source (vocal fold vibration that sustains voiced sounds or a turbulent airstream that sustains many voiceless sounds).
The feature [voice] is self-explanatory (with or without vocal fold vibration). The feature [spread glottis] is used to distinguish aspirated from unaspirated stops (aspirated stops are initially produced with the vocal folds drawn apart). We can therefore make the following distinctions:
voiced
spread glottis
p
-
-
b
+
-
pʰ
-
+
The [strident] feature is used by Halle and Clements for those fricatives produced with high-intensity fricative noise: supposedly labiodentals, alveolars, palato-alveolars, and uvulars are [+strident]. There seems to be little acoustic phonetic basis to the claim that labiodentals and alveolars pattern acoustically (as opposed to dentals). In this course, we will use Ladefoged's feature [sibilant] which is defined by Ladefoged (1971) in acoustic terms as including those fricatives with 'large amounts of acoustic energy at high frequencies' i.e. [s ʃ z ʒ]. The English affricates would therefore also be [+sibilant]:
cont
sibilant
oral stops
-
-
affricates
-
+
sibilant fricatives
+
+
non-sibilant fricatives
+
-
This may be an oversimplification, however, as the alveolar oral stops might also be described as sibilant, so sibilant isn't sufficient to separate oral stops and affricates (and we still need spread glottis).
These are related to the source (vocal fold vibration that sustains voiced sounds or a turbulent airstream that sustains many voiceless sounds).
The feature [voice] is self-explanatory (with or without vocal fold vibration). The feature [spread glottis] is used to distinguish aspirated from unaspirated stops (aspirated stops are initially produced with the vocal folds drawn apart). We can therefore make the following distinctions:
voiced
spread glottis
p
-
-
b
+
-
pʰ
-
+
The [strident] feature is used by Halle and Clements for those fricatives produced with high-intensity fricative noise: supposedly labiodentals, alveolars, palato-alveolars, and uvulars are [+strident]. There seems to be little acoustic phonetic basis to the claim that labiodentals and alveolars pattern acoustically (as opposed to dentals). In this course, we will use Ladefoged's feature [sibilant] which is defined by Ladefoged (1971) in acoustic terms as including those fricatives with 'large amounts of acoustic energy at high frequencies' i.e. [s ʃ z ʒ]. The English affricates would therefore also be [+sibilant]:
cont
sibilant
oral stops
-
-
affricates
-
+
sibilant fricatives
+
+
non-sibilant fricatives
+
-
This may be an oversimplification, however, as the alveolar oral stops might also be described as sibilant, so sibilant isn't sufficient to separate oral stops and affricates (and we still need spread glottis).
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
An overview of commonly used distinctive features
The features described in Halle & Clements (1983) have been commonly used in the phonology literature in their analyses of the sound patterns of various languages. They incorporate many insights of the original features devised by Jakobson (1941) but are mostly based on those of the Sound Pattern of English, taking into account some modifications suggested by Halle & Stevens (1971). Most of these are also discussed below.
i. Major class features
Four features [syll], [cons], [son], [cont] (syllabic, consonantal, sonorant, continuant) are used to divide up speech sounds into major classes, as follows. Note that [syll] means "syllabic" (syllable nucleus), [cons] means "consonantal", [son] means "sonorant" (periodic low frequency energy), [cont] means "continuant" (continuous airflow through oral cavity), and [delrel] means delayed release (release is not "delayed", but there is a longer aspiration phase than oral stops - nb. voice onset is what's actually delayed).
syll
cons
son
cont
delrel
vowels
+
-
+
+
0
oral stops
-
+
-
-
-
affricates
-
+
-
-
+
nasal stops
-
+
+
-
0
fricatives
-
+
-
+
0
liquids
-
+
+
+
0
semi-vowels
-
-
+
+
0
Note that the approximants have been divided into liquids (eg. in English /r, l/) and semi-vowels (eg. in English /w, j/). In this, and most other distinctive feature sets derived from Chomsky and Halle. Semi-vowels (being [-syll, -cons]) form a class of sounds intermediate between vowels ([+syll]) and consonants ([+cons]). The approximants can be defined as a class by the features [-syll, +son, +cont] and can be further sub-divided into liquids and semi-vowels using the [cons] feature. Note that "0" means irrelevant feature for these classes of sounds (there's nothing to release).
We also have a feature [nasal] which, as its name suggests, separates nasal from oral sounds. In the above table, [nasal] would have been redundant as the nasal stops are already defined uniquely as [-syll, +cons, +son, -cont] (ie. as sonorant stops). However. the feature [nasal] is required to define nasal stops, nasalised vowels and nasalised approximants as a single natural class.
The features described in Halle & Clements (1983) have been commonly used in the phonology literature in their analyses of the sound patterns of various languages. They incorporate many insights of the original features devised by Jakobson (1941) but are mostly based on those of the Sound Pattern of English, taking into account some modifications suggested by Halle & Stevens (1971). Most of these are also discussed below.
i. Major class features
Four features [syll], [cons], [son], [cont] (syllabic, consonantal, sonorant, continuant) are used to divide up speech sounds into major classes, as follows. Note that [syll] means "syllabic" (syllable nucleus), [cons] means "consonantal", [son] means "sonorant" (periodic low frequency energy), [cont] means "continuant" (continuous airflow through oral cavity), and [delrel] means delayed release (release is not "delayed", but there is a longer aspiration phase than oral stops - nb. voice onset is what's actually delayed).
syll
cons
son
cont
delrel
vowels
+
-
+
+
0
oral stops
-
+
-
-
-
affricates
-
+
-
-
+
nasal stops
-
+
+
-
0
fricatives
-
+
-
+
0
liquids
-
+
+
+
0
semi-vowels
-
-
+
+
0
Note that the approximants have been divided into liquids (eg. in English /r, l/) and semi-vowels (eg. in English /w, j/). In this, and most other distinctive feature sets derived from Chomsky and Halle. Semi-vowels (being [-syll, -cons]) form a class of sounds intermediate between vowels ([+syll]) and consonants ([+cons]). The approximants can be defined as a class by the features [-syll, +son, +cont] and can be further sub-divided into liquids and semi-vowels using the [cons] feature. Note that "0" means irrelevant feature for these classes of sounds (there's nothing to release).
We also have a feature [nasal] which, as its name suggests, separates nasal from oral sounds. In the above table, [nasal] would have been redundant as the nasal stops are already defined uniquely as [-syll, +cons, +son, -cont] (ie. as sonorant stops). However. the feature [nasal] is required to define nasal stops, nasalised vowels and nasalised approximants as a single natural class.
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
Phonetic interpretation
According to Jakobson (1941), the distinctive features should have definable articulatory and acoustic correlates. For example, [+nasal] implies a lowering of the soft-palate and also an increase in the ratio of energy in the low to the high part of the spectrum. Chomsky & Halle (1968) abandoned the acoustic definitions of phonological features (inappropriately, as Ladefoged, 1971 and many others have argued: for example [f] and [x] are related acoustically but not articulatorily and they participated in the sound change by which the pronunciation of 'gh' spellings in English changed from a velar to a labiodental fricative e.g. 'laugh', [lɑx]→[lɑf]).
Many of the features are defined loosely in phonetic terms. This is perhaps to be expected. Phonology has established highly abstract representations to explain sound alternations (i.e. to factor out what are considered redundant or predictable aspects of a word's pronunciation) and this abstraction is partly opposed to the principle in phonetics of describing in articulatory and acoustic terms the characteristics of speech sound production that are shared by linguistic communities. Nevertheless, if phonology is to be related to how words are actually pronounced, the features are required to have at least some phonetic basis to them.
According to Jakobson (1941), the distinctive features should have definable articulatory and acoustic correlates. For example, [+nasal] implies a lowering of the soft-palate and also an increase in the ratio of energy in the low to the high part of the spectrum. Chomsky & Halle (1968) abandoned the acoustic definitions of phonological features (inappropriately, as Ladefoged, 1971 and many others have argued: for example [f] and [x] are related acoustically but not articulatorily and they participated in the sound change by which the pronunciation of 'gh' spellings in English changed from a velar to a labiodental fricative e.g. 'laugh', [lɑx]→[lɑf]).
Many of the features are defined loosely in phonetic terms. This is perhaps to be expected. Phonology has established highly abstract representations to explain sound alternations (i.e. to factor out what are considered redundant or predictable aspects of a word's pronunciation) and this abstraction is partly opposed to the principle in phonetics of describing in articulatory and acoustic terms the characteristics of speech sound production that are shared by linguistic communities. Nevertheless, if phonology is to be related to how words are actually pronounced, the features are required to have at least some phonetic basis to them.
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
c) Binarity
We have assumed that features are binary (a segment is either nasal or it is not) following Jakobson's (1941) original formulation of distinctive feature theory and this premise was adopted in Chomsky & Halle's (1968) Sound Pattern of English. There were many reasons why Jakobson (1941) advocated a binary approach. Firstly, as we have seen, this is the most efficient way of reducing the phoneme inventory of a language. Secondly, he argued that most phonological oppositions are binary in nature (e.g. sounds either are or are not produced with a lowered soft-palate and nasalisation) and he even proposed that it has a physiological basis i.e. that nerve fibers have an 'all-or-none' response. But the binary principal is certainly not adopted by all linguists, and many phoneticians in particular have argued that some features should be n-ary (where "n" is any relevant number of degrees or levels - see for example, Ladefoged's 1993 treatment of vowel height which is 4-valued to reflect the distinction between close, half-close, half-open, and open vowels).
We have assumed that features are binary (a segment is either nasal or it is not) following Jakobson's (1941) original formulation of distinctive feature theory and this premise was adopted in Chomsky & Halle's (1968) Sound Pattern of English. There were many reasons why Jakobson (1941) advocated a binary approach. Firstly, as we have seen, this is the most efficient way of reducing the phoneme inventory of a language. Secondly, he argued that most phonological oppositions are binary in nature (e.g. sounds either are or are not produced with a lowered soft-palate and nasalisation) and he even proposed that it has a physiological basis i.e. that nerve fibers have an 'all-or-none' response. But the binary principal is certainly not adopted by all linguists, and many phoneticians in particular have argued that some features should be n-ary (where "n" is any relevant number of degrees or levels - see for example, Ladefoged's 1993 treatment of vowel height which is 4-valued to reflect the distinction between close, half-close, half-open, and open vowels).
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
b) Economy
In phonology, and particularly in Generative Phonology, we are often concerned to eliminate redundancy from the sound pattern of a language or to explain it by rule. Distinctive features allow the possibility of writing rules using a considerably smaller number of units than the phonemes of a language. Consider for example, a hypothetical language that has 12 consonant and 3 vowel phonemes:
p t k
b d ɡ
m n ŋ
f s ç
i u
ɑ
We could refer to all these phonemes with perhaps just 6 distinctive features - a reduction of over half the number of phoneme units which also allows natural classes to be established amongst them:
[+voice] b d ɡ m n ŋ i u ɑ
[+nasal] m n ŋ
[+high] i u k ɡ ŋ ç
[+labial] p m b u f
[+anterior] p t b d m n f s
[+cont] f s ç i u ɑ
At the same time, each phoneme is uniquely represented, as shown by the distinctive feature matrix:
In phonology, and particularly in Generative Phonology, we are often concerned to eliminate redundancy from the sound pattern of a language or to explain it by rule. Distinctive features allow the possibility of writing rules using a considerably smaller number of units than the phonemes of a language. Consider for example, a hypothetical language that has 12 consonant and 3 vowel phonemes:
p t k
b d ɡ
m n ŋ
f s ç
i u
ɑ
We could refer to all these phonemes with perhaps just 6 distinctive features - a reduction of over half the number of phoneme units which also allows natural classes to be established amongst them:
[+voice] b d ɡ m n ŋ i u ɑ
[+nasal] m n ŋ
[+high] i u k ɡ ŋ ç
[+labial] p m b u f
[+anterior] p t b d m n f s
[+cont] f s ç i u ɑ
At the same time, each phoneme is uniquely represented, as shown by the distinctive feature matrix:
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
a) Features establish natural classes
Using distinctive features, phonemes are broken down into smaller components. For example, a nasal phoneme /m/ might be represented as a feature matrix [+ sonorant, -continuant, +voice, +nasal, +labial] (nb. you will often see the features of the matrices arranged in columns in phonology books -- this is exactly equivalent to the 'horizontal' representation used here). By representing /m/ in this way, we are saying both something about its phonetic characteristics (it's a sonorant because, like vowels, its acoustic waveform has low frequency periodic energy; it's a non-continuant because the airflow is totally interrupted in the oral cavity etc.), but also importantly, the aim is to choose distinctive features that establish natural classes of phonemes. For example, since all the other nasal consonants and nasalised vowels (if a language has them) have feature matrices that are defined as [+nasal], we can refer to all these segments in a single simple phonological by making the rule apply to [+nasal] segments. Similarly, if we want our rules to refer to all the approximants and high vowels, we might define this natural class by [+sonorant, +high].
The advantage of this approach is readily apparent in writing phonological rules. For example, we might want a rule which makes approximants voiceless when they follow aspirated stops in English. If we could not define phonemes in terms of distinctive features, we would have to have separate rules, such as [l] becomes voiceless after /k/ ('claim'), /r/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('cry'), /w/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('quite'), /j/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('cute'), and then the same again for all the approximants that can follow /p/ and /t/. If we define phonemes as bundles of features, we can state the rule more succinctly as e.g. [+sonorant, -syllabic, +continuant] sounds (i.e. all approximants) become [+spread glottis] (aspirated) after sounds which are [+spread glottis] (aspirated).
If the features are well chosen, it should be possible to refer to natural classes of phonemes with a small number of features. For example, [p t k] form a natural class of voiceless stops in most languages: we can often refer to these and no others with just two features, [-continuant, -voiced]. On the other hand, [m] and [d] are a much less natural class (ie. few sound changes and few, if any, phonological rules, apply to them both and appropriately it is impossible in most feature systems to refer to these sounds and no others in a single feature matrix).
Using distinctive features, phonemes are broken down into smaller components. For example, a nasal phoneme /m/ might be represented as a feature matrix [+ sonorant, -continuant, +voice, +nasal, +labial] (nb. you will often see the features of the matrices arranged in columns in phonology books -- this is exactly equivalent to the 'horizontal' representation used here). By representing /m/ in this way, we are saying both something about its phonetic characteristics (it's a sonorant because, like vowels, its acoustic waveform has low frequency periodic energy; it's a non-continuant because the airflow is totally interrupted in the oral cavity etc.), but also importantly, the aim is to choose distinctive features that establish natural classes of phonemes. For example, since all the other nasal consonants and nasalised vowels (if a language has them) have feature matrices that are defined as [+nasal], we can refer to all these segments in a single simple phonological by making the rule apply to [+nasal] segments. Similarly, if we want our rules to refer to all the approximants and high vowels, we might define this natural class by [+sonorant, +high].
The advantage of this approach is readily apparent in writing phonological rules. For example, we might want a rule which makes approximants voiceless when they follow aspirated stops in English. If we could not define phonemes in terms of distinctive features, we would have to have separate rules, such as [l] becomes voiceless after /k/ ('claim'), /r/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('cry'), /w/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('quite'), /j/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('cute'), and then the same again for all the approximants that can follow /p/ and /t/. If we define phonemes as bundles of features, we can state the rule more succinctly as e.g. [+sonorant, -syllabic, +continuant] sounds (i.e. all approximants) become [+spread glottis] (aspirated) after sounds which are [+spread glottis] (aspirated).
If the features are well chosen, it should be possible to refer to natural classes of phonemes with a small number of features. For example, [p t k] form a natural class of voiceless stops in most languages: we can often refer to these and no others with just two features, [-continuant, -voiced]. On the other hand, [m] and [d] are a much less natural class (ie. few sound changes and few, if any, phonological rules, apply to them both and appropriately it is impossible in most feature systems to refer to these sounds and no others in a single feature matrix).
Concluding the Position of Foucault and Barthes
Foucault and Barthes argue in favour of the downfall of the authority of a writer. Barthes outlines this when he writes: “To give a text an Author is to impose a limit on that text” . Whilst Foucault agrees with this statement, he tries more carefully to explain the irrelevance of an author, being wary of Barthes attempt to create a universal truth about the non-existence of the author, which Foucault recognises as a historical institution and one which cannot be swayed as easily as The Death of the Author suggests.
The essays of Barthes and Foucault remain prominent examples of post-structuralist theory.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCfgmzvN
The essays of Barthes and Foucault remain prominent examples of post-structuralist theory.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCfgmzvN
Reconciling the Author With the Text
To illustrate this point, Foucault develops what he describes as “the author function”. He argues that the author exists as the creator of a work but his individuality becomes irrelevant upon the coming together of the text, because it is language which defines a text; an author is simply a name, not a code of meanings.
Foucault maintains that the author himself is a character; a work of fiction, who, in the process of writing, adopts certain personas and emotions: “Everyone knows that, in a novel narrated in the first person, neither the first person pronoun, nor the present indicative refer exactly either to the writer or the moment in which he writes” .
This conclusion serves as an expansion upon Barthes original argument that: “The author is never more than the instance writing, just as I is nothing other than the instance saying I” . What is an Author? argues that a writer who acts with the same authenticity as a fictional character, carries the same authority that a reader would attribute to the characters the author creates.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCfXAWtP
Foucault maintains that the author himself is a character; a work of fiction, who, in the process of writing, adopts certain personas and emotions: “Everyone knows that, in a novel narrated in the first person, neither the first person pronoun, nor the present indicative refer exactly either to the writer or the moment in which he writes” .
This conclusion serves as an expansion upon Barthes original argument that: “The author is never more than the instance writing, just as I is nothing other than the instance saying I” . What is an Author? argues that a writer who acts with the same authenticity as a fictional character, carries the same authority that a reader would attribute to the characters the author creates.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCfXAWtP
Michel Foucault and 'What is an Author?'
Whilst Foucault’s conclusions coincide with the statement that “It is language which speaks, not the author”, he does not go so far as to say that the author, because of this, does not exist.
He accepts that literature must have an author and creator, just as it must have a reader: “One cannot turn a name into a pure and simple reference. It has other than indicative functions…When one says, ‘Aristotle’, one employs a word that is the equivalent of one or a series of definite descriptions” .
He respects that, as he writes, the name Aristotle brings with it the association that Aristotle wrote The Analytics, though also makes it clear that a description, by its nature, does not bring forth meaning. To say, for example, that F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote The Great Gatsby, does not help us understand the meaning of the language of the text, The Great Gatsby.
He accepts that literature must have an author and creator, just as it must have a reader: “One cannot turn a name into a pure and simple reference. It has other than indicative functions…When one says, ‘Aristotle’, one employs a word that is the equivalent of one or a series of definite descriptions” .
He respects that, as he writes, the name Aristotle brings with it the association that Aristotle wrote The Analytics, though also makes it clear that a description, by its nature, does not bring forth meaning. To say, for example, that F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote The Great Gatsby, does not help us understand the meaning of the language of the text, The Great Gatsby.
Roland Barthes -- The Death of the Author
Barthes outlines this clearly when he states: “In the multiplicity of writing, everything is to be disentangled, nothing deciphered…the space of writing is to be ranged over, not pierced” .
Simply, The Death of the Author argues that a reader gains nothing from a literary work if they know the feelings of the writer of the piece because a text becomes a text when it is put into writing; it is the text, purely because it comes into existence, not because it is created by an author and it is the language which gives it resonance.
This is the meaning behind Barthes’ assertion that: “It is language which speaks, not the author”.
Simply, The Death of the Author argues that a reader gains nothing from a literary work if they know the feelings of the writer of the piece because a text becomes a text when it is put into writing; it is the text, purely because it comes into existence, not because it is created by an author and it is the language which gives it resonance.
This is the meaning behind Barthes’ assertion that: “It is language which speaks, not the author”.
Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault 1
In 'What is an Author?' and 'The Death of the Author' Michel Foucault and Roland Barthes make seminal contributions to literary theory.
In both The Death of the Author and What is an Author? – written by Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault respectively - the basic premise is the same: a literary text is defined on its own terms by its own language; literature cannot be read and decoded in relation to its author.
Where the problem begins is that Roland Barthes, in The Death of the Author states that “the birth of the reader must come at the cost of the death of the author”, yet What is an Author? has Michel Foucault deconstructing the myth of the author and authorship, and investigating the relationship between the author and the work.
In the respective essays, Foucault and Barthes draw the same conclusion – that applied authorship distorts and limits a text – but Barthes denies the existence of the author, whilst Foucault undermines the author’s influence and authority.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCel3HrX
In both The Death of the Author and What is an Author? – written by Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault respectively - the basic premise is the same: a literary text is defined on its own terms by its own language; literature cannot be read and decoded in relation to its author.
Where the problem begins is that Roland Barthes, in The Death of the Author states that “the birth of the reader must come at the cost of the death of the author”, yet What is an Author? has Michel Foucault deconstructing the myth of the author and authorship, and investigating the relationship between the author and the work.
In the respective essays, Foucault and Barthes draw the same conclusion – that applied authorship distorts and limits a text – but Barthes denies the existence of the author, whilst Foucault undermines the author’s influence and authority.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCel3HrX
Postcolonial Kenya 3
A certain level of irony presents itself due to the terms of Howlands sojourn in Kenya. He aims to escape the memories of warfare and brutality imposed upon him by his mother country, yet settles in Kenya to brutalize with identical violence. His only drive in life of acquiring and cultivating the “wild and chartered” lands of Africa helps balance his shell-shocked mind, yet Ngugi shows in Howlands avarice that inevitably effects of war will trickle down even years after a war’s end. Indeed, the concept of a “trickle down” effect with war aftermath presents itself boldly in a generational sense. Boro, Ngotho’s eldest living son, spurs conflict in the land of Kipanga due to his rash behavior and bitter hatred of white oppression. His experiences in the heat of battlefields and the trauma of witnessing his brother’s death cloud any rationality the might have aimed at uniting the Kikuyu towards a goal. When looking at histology through the scope of time it is clear that the alternatives to the Mau Mau violence where available. The British relations with India and the works of Gandhi are proof of this concept (Byford). Ngotho does not understand his son, even fears him because of his experiences in World War II, and acts rashly in a worker’s strike to win his son’s approval. The patriarchal tribe of Ngotho’s youth has truly been destroyed due to the economic, social, and political pressures applied by colonization. When all the dust settles, inevitably, Njoroge bears the responsibility of holding together the family. As children lose respect for parents due to their ineffective rejection of colonization, the colonization turns the normal family structure of the Kikuyu backwards and allows the rash youth to dictate the conditions of the cultures’s future. Indeed, it is said that the only way for the Kikuyu to survive would be to follow tribal traditions (Gikandi). Ngugi strips away Njoroge’s respect for the solidarity of his family, and even teaches the boys to feel ashamed of his social status. Despite this Njoroge still thrieves because he sees the hope of a better future. He believes with all his heart that with an education, anything becomes possible no matter what the state of the world. Njoroge stands as an example of what happens to the idealistic that cannot accept reality. Ngugi encourages the reader to admire Njoroge for his fortitude and optimism, yet makes the audience bear witness to the hero’s downfall. By choosing to portray his protagonist as such, Ngugi forces a realization that though all factors in a personalty seem naturally to lead to a culmination of well-deserved success, the outside factors, such as an oppressive political climate will render failure in even the most strong of characters. The world Ngugi creates is one in which the naïve and true or heart are trampled by the fiscally savvy. Through this he makes a bitter statement of the bleak opportunies available to Africans when weighed down under the heavy curtain of colonial oppression. Ngugi reveals his views with biting wit and pragmatism, and stands as quite an effective writer because of this willingness to reveal a complete deterioration of the protagonist. Ngugi couples this act of realism with a few key moments of poignant symbolism to craft the masterpiece of Weep Not, Child. One instance of this occurs in a description of the children born of African mothers and Italian prisoners of World War I: “They were ugly and grew and some grew up to have small wounds all over their body and especially around their mouth so that flies followed them all the time and at all places. Some people said it was punishment…[for sleeping] with white men who ruled them and treated them badly” (Ngugi 24). Ngugi here imparts a grotesque image to symbolize the manifested evils of colonization. Interestingly, he ties this instance of interbreeding with the African tribal mythology prevalent throughout the novel. The people view this as a curse, or punishment, from their ancient Gods for allowing the oppression to occur. Another symbol of white oppression exists in Njoroge’s description of the road built by the Italian war prisoners that runs through Kenya. Njoroge describes it as so long that you see no end or beginning to it, much in the manner that Njoroge cannot recall the beginning of colonization nor imagine an end to it. Also he describes puddles of water on the road, which makes you thirsty until you realize they were only illusions and not real water. Njoroge understands this phenomenon keenly when he states at the novels ends, “My tomorrow was just an illusion” (Ngugi 175). Disillusionment and disappointment prevails in this novel and a young boy’s journey into manhood. Sadly, Njoroge is forced to accept that there is no hope for his generation. Sweet promises of prosperity from the hands of modernization collide with the Mau Mau’s passionate battle cries. Idealistic like Njoroge who say, “weep not” are buried in the rift between these powers because they cannot choose a side. Ngugi points the oppressive power of colonialism to erase, alter, divide and destroy an entire race of people.
Postcolonial Kenya 2
Soon after Njoroge’s dreams are smashed when the vengeful Jacobo places blame of Mau Mau connections on Ngotho and Mr.Howlands has Njoroge removed from school for questioning. Both father and son are brutally beaten before release and Ngotho is left barely alive. Njoroge’s brothers assassinate both Mr.Howlands and Jacobo and Njoroge is left as the sole provider to his two mothers. Doomed to failure, he has lost all hope of returning to school, has lost faith in God, and when he finally pledges his love to Mwihaki, she is too afraid to marry him. At this the idealistic protagonist of Weep Not, Child, can take no more, and fails an attempt at suicide at the novel’s closure. The main contention of Ngugi against colonialism emerges clearly from this narrative. Here, we witness a boy full of hope for a bright new future, full of love for his family, joy at the prospect of an education, yet still anchored with a strong sense of cultural identity to support him through his endeavors. Ngugi seems to apply a sociological experiment on the protagonist when one by one taking away all that sustains his strength. Naturally the first enabling quality stripped away stands as the most irrevocably destroyed—tribal identity. Njoroge finds his life full of conflict. He stands with one foot in western modernism and the other in a world awed by the mythologies of olden times. He must accept Christian faith as a prerequisite to a European education, yet yearns to know the ancient stories of his origin. One instance where this notion prevails is when Njoroge stands before his class, a class aimed at learning western culture and language, and is asked by his teacher to tell a story. Njoroge knows many stories passed down by his mothers, but becomes frozen; in fact, devastated that he does not remember a single one. Ngugi here makes the first of several statements about Africans choosing between two social modes and failing when trying to live in both. Going to school with more westernized children teaches Njoroge to feel for the first time shame of his social position. He avoids walking past Mwihaki and hides so that she does not see his worn calico smock. Before attending school the boy knew nothing of wearing shorts and shirts, and so, had no concept of shame. Colonialism imparted desirable new technologies to the Kikuyu people, yet in the same hand brought a sense of inferiority never before felt by the culture. According to Simon Gikandi of the University of Michigan, the Kikuyu people where not prone to individualism. They, as a culture, saw life as conducted according to the ‘basic rhythm of nature’; [in Gikandi’s view], the African encounter with colonial modernity was a catastrophic event (Gikandi). Another manner in which Ngugi deteriorates his protagonist occurs after Ngotho’s attack on Jacobo at the worker’s strike. To understand the weight of this event it is first imperative to examine the circumstances of generational divides between the youth brought up under colonial rule and the elders of tribal heritage. Ngugi aims to reveal the duality of the oppressing force. Many white settlers were colonizing to avoid conflicts of war in Great Britain.
Postcolonial Kenya 1
A notable amount of literary works produced in Africa today follow the postcolonial literary mode. This mode of writing highlights the affects of the imperialistic colonization of the pre-World War I period. Postcolonial literature aims to give a voice to the colonized peoples while promoting their language and cultural ideals and rejecting the previously enforced ideals of Western civilization. Weep Not, Child by James Ngugi explores such postcolonial themes in its examination of life during the Mau Mau Revolution. Weep Not, Child essentially stands as the tale of a young boy of Kikuyu tribal heritage growing up in the squatter lifestyle imposed by British rule. Njoroge’s family is by no means wealthy. They live on the land of Jacobo, a shrewd and opportunistic African made rich by his dealings with white settlers, namely Mr.Howlands, the most predominate and powerful land owner in all of Kipanga. What Njoroge’s family does possess, however, is to the tribal mentality even sweeter than economic power—respect. Ngotho, Njoroge’s father, commands respect from the community for his ability to hold his family together. Ngotho takes much pride in the land, and tends Mr.Howlands crops to his utmost ability not out of loyal service, but because he believes in prophesies that the land will someday return to the Kikuyu people. Ngotho tries to fulfill this prophesy by respecting the land and also by giving his son an education so that Njoroge may someday lead the oppressed Kikuyu to victory against British rule. Njoroge thus grows up very differently from his brothers Kamau and Boro. Kamau works as an apprentice to a carpenter and feels firsthand the lowered expectations and menial labor that he must accept for his life. Boro, the eldest living son, is haunted by his experiences of forced service in World War II and witnessing the death of his elder brother to white men. Njoroge, though young, feels the full burden of his family’s future on his shoulders and is grateful for an education. He devotes himself to an idealistic outlook and Christian faith which follows him throughout his childhood and into adolescence. Njoroge perseveres through family tragedies and pressures due to his relationship with his dear friend and classmate Mwihaki, the daughter of Jacobo, who helps him adapt to school. When Ngotho attempts to attack Jacobo in a heated workers strike, Njoroge’s family is forced to move and Ngotho loses his job. Njoroge’s education is thereafter funded by his brothers who have lost all respect for their father. While Njoroge attends high school he has a strange encounter with Mr. Howlands’ son Stephen and together they discuss the absurdities of inequality.
Postcolonial Kenya
A notable amount of literary works produced in Africa today follow the postcolonial literary mode. This mode of writing highlights the affects of the imperialistic colonization of the pre-World War I period. Postcolonial literature aims to give a voice to the colonized peoples while promoting their language and cultural ideals and rejecting the previously enforced ideals of Western civilization. Weep Not, Child by James Ngugi explores such postcolonial themes in its examination of life during the Mau Mau Revolution. Weep Not, Child essentially stands as the tale of a young boy of Kikuyu tribal heritage growing up in the squatter lifestyle imposed by British rule. Njoroge’s family is by no means wealthy. They live on the land of Jacobo, a shrewd and opportunistic African made rich by his dealings with white settlers, namely Mr.Howlands, the most predominate and powerful land owner in all of Kipanga. What Njoroge’s family does possess, however, is to the tribal mentality even sweeter than economic power—respect. Ngotho, Njoroge’s father, commands respect from the community for his ability to hold his family together. Ngotho takes much pride in the land, and tends Mr.Howlands crops to his utmost ability not out of loyal service, but because he believes in prophesies that the land will someday return to the Kikuyu people. Ngotho tries to fulfill this prophesy by respecting the land and also by giving his son an education so that Njoroge may someday lead the oppressed Kikuyu to victory against British rule. Njoroge thus grows up very differently from his brothers Kamau and Boro. Kamau works as an apprentice to a carpenter and feels firsthand the lowered expectations and menial labor that he must accept for his life. Boro, the eldest living son, is haunted by his experiences of forced service in World War II and witnessing the death of his elder brother to white men. Njoroge, though young, feels the full burden of his family’s future on his shoulders and is grateful for an education. He devotes himself to an idealistic outlook and Christian faith which follows him throughout his childhood and into adolescence. Njoroge perseveres through family tragedies and pressures due to his relationship with his dear friend and classmate Mwihaki, the daughter of Jacobo, who helps him adapt to school. When Ngotho attempts to attack Jacobo in a heated workers strike, Njoroge’s family is forced to move and Ngotho loses his job. Njoroge’s education is thereafter funded by his brothers who have lost all respect for their father. While Njoroge attends high school he has a strange encounter with Mr. Howlands’ son Stephen and together they discuss the absurdities of inequality. Soon after Njoroge’s dreams are smashed when the vengeful Jacobo places blame of Mau Mau connections on Ngotho and Mr.Howlands has Njoroge removed from school for questioning. Both father and son are brutally beaten before release and Ngotho is left barely alive. Njoroge’s brothers assassinate both Mr.Howlands and Jacobo and Njoroge is left as the sole provider to his two mothers. Doomed to failure, he has lost all hope of returning to school, has lost faith in God, and when he finally pledges his love to Mwihaki, she is too afraid to marry him. At this the idealistic protagonist of Weep Not, Child, can take no more, and fails an attempt at suicide at the novel’s closure. The main contention of Ngugi against colonialism emerges clearly from this narrative. Here, we witness a boy full of hope for a bright new future, full of love for his family, joy at the prospect of an education, yet still anchored with a strong sense of cultural identity to support him through his endeavors. Ngugi seems to apply a sociological experiment on the protagonist when one by one taking away all that sustains his strength. Naturally the first enabling quality stripped away stands as the most irrevocably destroyed—tribal identity. Njoroge finds his life full of conflict. He stands with one foot in western modernism and the other in a world awed by the mythologies of olden times. He must accept Christian faith as a prerequisite to a European education, yet yearns to know the ancient stories of his origin. One instance where this notion prevails is when Njoroge stands before his class, a class aimed at learning western culture and language, and is asked by his teacher to tell a story. Njoroge knows many stories passed down by his mothers, but becomes frozen; in fact, devastated that he does not remember a single one. Ngugi here makes the first of several statements about Africans choosing between two social modes and failing when trying to live in both. Going to school with more westernized children teaches Njoroge to feel for the first time shame of his social position. He avoids walking past Mwihaki and hides so that she does not see his worn calico smock. Before attending school the boy knew nothing of wearing shorts and shirts, and so, had no concept of shame. Colonialism imparted desirable new technologies to the Kikuyu people, yet in the same hand brought a sense of inferiority never before felt by the culture. According to Simon Gikandi of the University of Michigan, the Kikuyu people where not prone to individualism. They, as a culture, saw life as conducted according to the ‘basic rhythm of nature’; [in Gikandi’s view], the African encounter with colonial modernity was a catastrophic event (Gikandi). Another manner in which Ngugi deteriorates his protagonist occurs after Ngotho’s attack on Jacobo at the worker’s strike. To understand the weight of this event it is first imperative to examine the circumstances of generational divides between the youth brought up under colonial rule and the elders of tribal heritage. Ngugi aims to reveal the duality of the oppressing force. Many white settlers were colonizing to avoid conflicts of war in Great Britain. A certain level of irony presents itself due to the terms of Howlands sojourn in Kenya. He aims to escape the memories of warfare and brutality imposed upon him by his mother country, yet settles in Kenya to brutalize with identical violence. His only drive in life of acquiring and cultivating the “wild and chartered” lands of Africa helps balance his shell-shocked mind, yet Ngugi shows in Howlands avarice that inevitably effects of war will trickle down even years after a war’s end. Indeed, the concept of a “trickle down” effect with war aftermath presents itself boldly in a generational sense. Boro, Ngotho’s eldest living son, spurs conflict in the land of Kipanga due to his rash behavior and bitter hatred of white oppression. His experiences in the heat of battlefields and the trauma of witnessing his brother’s death cloud any rationality the might have aimed at uniting the Kikuyu towards a goal. When looking at histology through the scope of time it is clear that the alternatives to the Mau Mau violence where available. The British relations with India and the works of Gandhi are proof of this concept (Byford). Ngotho does not understand his son, even fears him because of his experiences in World War II, and acts rashly in a worker’s strike to win his son’s approval. The patriarchal tribe of Ngotho’s youth has truly been destroyed due to the economic, social, and political pressures applied by colonization. When all the dust settles, inevitably, Njoroge bears the responsibility of holding together the family. As children lose respect for parents due to their ineffective rejection of colonization, the colonization turns the normal family structure of the Kikuyu backwards and allows the rash youth to dictate the conditions of the cultures’s future. Indeed, it is said that the only way for the Kikuyu to survive would be to follow tribal traditions (Gikandi). Ngugi strips away Njoroge’s respect for the solidarity of his family, and even teaches the boys to feel ashamed of his social status. Despite this Njoroge still thrieves because he sees the hope of a better future. He believes with all his heart that with an education, anything becomes possible no matter what the state of the world. Njoroge stands as an example of what happens to the idealistic that cannot accept reality. Ngugi encourages the reader to admire Njoroge for his fortitude and optimism, yet makes the audience bear witness to the hero’s downfall. By choosing to portray his protagonist as such, Ngugi forces a realization that though all factors in a personalty seem naturally to lead to a culmination of well-deserved success, the outside factors, such as an oppressive political climate will render failure in even the most strong of characters. The world Ngugi creates is one in which the naïve and true or heart are trampled by the fiscally savvy. Through this he makes a bitter statement of the bleak opportunies available to Africans when weighed down under the heavy curtain of colonial oppression. Ngugi reveals his views with biting wit and pragmatism, and stands as quite an effective writer because of this willingness to reveal a complete deterioration of the protagonist. Ngugi couples this act of realism with a few key moments of poignant symbolism to craft the masterpiece of Weep Not, Child. One instance of this occurs in a description of the children born of African mothers and Italian prisoners of World War I: “They were ugly and grew and some grew up to have small wounds all over their body and especially around their mouth so that flies followed them all the time and at all places. Some people said it was punishment…[for sleeping] with white men who ruled them and treated them badly” (Ngugi 24). Ngugi here imparts a grotesque image to symbolize the manifested evils of colonization. Interestingly, he ties this instance of interbreeding with the African tribal mythology prevalent throughout the novel. The people view this as a curse, or punishment, from their ancient Gods for allowing the oppression to occur. Another symbol of white oppression exists in Njoroge’s description of the road built by the Italian war prisoners that runs through Kenya. Njoroge describes it as so long that you see no end or beginning to it, much in the manner that Njoroge cannot recall the beginning of colonization nor imagine an end to it. Also he describes puddles of water on the road, which makes you thirsty until you realize they were only illusions and not real water. Njoroge understands this phenomenon keenly when he states at the novels ends, “My tomorrow was just an illusion” (Ngugi 175). Disillusionment and disappointment prevails in this novel and a young boy’s journey into manhood. Sadly, Njoroge is forced to accept that there is no hope for his generation. Sweet promises of prosperity from the hands of modernization collide with the Mau Mau’s passionate battle cries. Idealistic like Njoroge who say, “weep not” are buried in the rift between these powers because they cannot choose a side. Ngugi points the oppressive power of colonialism to erase, alter, divide and destroy an entire race of people.
Post colonial literature / colonial literature
Colonial African literature
The African works best known in the West from the period of colonization and the slave trade are primarily slave narratives, such as Olaudah Equiano's The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789).
In the colonial period, Africans exposed to Western languages began to write in those tongues. In 1911, Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford (also known as Ekra-Agiman) of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) published what is probably the first African novel written in English, Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation.[9] Although the work moves between fiction and political advocacy, its publication and positive reviews in the Western press mark a watershed moment in African literature.
During this period, African plays began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English-language African play, The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongqawuse the Liberator in 1935. In 1962, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, The Black Hermit, a cautionary tale about "tribalism" (racism between African tribes).
African literature in the late colonial period (between the end of World War I and independence) increasingly showed themes of liberation, independence, and (among Africans in French-controlled territories) négritude. One of the leaders of the négritude movement, the poet and eventual President of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor, published in 1948 the first anthology of French-language poetry written by Africans, Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française (Anthology of the New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French Language), featuring a preface by the French existentialist writer Jean-Paul Sartre.[10]
Nor was the African literary clerisy of this time relatively divorced from the issues that it tackled. Many, indeed, suffered deeply and directly: censured for casting aside his artistic responsibilities in order to participate actively in warfare, Christopher Okigbo was killed in battle for Biafra against the Nigerian movement of the 1960s' civil war; Mongane Wally Serote was detained under South Africa's Terrorism Act No 83 of 1967 between 1969 and 1970, and subsequently released without ever having stood trial; in London in 1970, his countryman Arthur Norje committed suicide; Malawi's Jack Mapanje was incarcerated with neither charge nor trial because of an off-hand remark at a university pub; and, in 1995, Ken Saro-Wiwa died by the gallows of the Nigerian junta.
Postcolonial African literature
With liberation and increased literacy since most African nations gained their independence in the 1950s and 1960s, African literature has grown dramatically in quantity and in recognition, with numerous African works appearing in Western academic curricula and on "best of" lists compiled at the end of the 20th century. African writers in this period wrote both in Western languages (notably English, French, and Portuguese) and in traditional African languages.
Ali A. Mazrui and others mention seven conflicts as themes: the clash between Africa's past and present, between tradition and modernity, between indigenous and foreign, between individualism and community, between socialism and capitalism, between development and self-reliance and between Africanity and humanity.[11] Other themes in this period include social problems such as corruption, the economic disparities in newly independent countries, and the rights and roles of women. Female writers are today far better represented in published African literature than they were prior to independence.
In 1986, Wole Soyinka became the first post-independence African writer to win the Nobel Prize in literature. Algerian-born Albert Camus had been awarded the 1957 prize.
references
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_literature#Colonial_African_literature, cited on 16/04/12
The African works best known in the West from the period of colonization and the slave trade are primarily slave narratives, such as Olaudah Equiano's The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789).
In the colonial period, Africans exposed to Western languages began to write in those tongues. In 1911, Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford (also known as Ekra-Agiman) of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) published what is probably the first African novel written in English, Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation.[9] Although the work moves between fiction and political advocacy, its publication and positive reviews in the Western press mark a watershed moment in African literature.
During this period, African plays began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English-language African play, The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongqawuse the Liberator in 1935. In 1962, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, The Black Hermit, a cautionary tale about "tribalism" (racism between African tribes).
African literature in the late colonial period (between the end of World War I and independence) increasingly showed themes of liberation, independence, and (among Africans in French-controlled territories) négritude. One of the leaders of the négritude movement, the poet and eventual President of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor, published in 1948 the first anthology of French-language poetry written by Africans, Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française (Anthology of the New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French Language), featuring a preface by the French existentialist writer Jean-Paul Sartre.[10]
Nor was the African literary clerisy of this time relatively divorced from the issues that it tackled. Many, indeed, suffered deeply and directly: censured for casting aside his artistic responsibilities in order to participate actively in warfare, Christopher Okigbo was killed in battle for Biafra against the Nigerian movement of the 1960s' civil war; Mongane Wally Serote was detained under South Africa's Terrorism Act No 83 of 1967 between 1969 and 1970, and subsequently released without ever having stood trial; in London in 1970, his countryman Arthur Norje committed suicide; Malawi's Jack Mapanje was incarcerated with neither charge nor trial because of an off-hand remark at a university pub; and, in 1995, Ken Saro-Wiwa died by the gallows of the Nigerian junta.
Postcolonial African literature
With liberation and increased literacy since most African nations gained their independence in the 1950s and 1960s, African literature has grown dramatically in quantity and in recognition, with numerous African works appearing in Western academic curricula and on "best of" lists compiled at the end of the 20th century. African writers in this period wrote both in Western languages (notably English, French, and Portuguese) and in traditional African languages.
Ali A. Mazrui and others mention seven conflicts as themes: the clash between Africa's past and present, between tradition and modernity, between indigenous and foreign, between individualism and community, between socialism and capitalism, between development and self-reliance and between Africanity and humanity.[11] Other themes in this period include social problems such as corruption, the economic disparities in newly independent countries, and the rights and roles of women. Female writers are today far better represented in published African literature than they were prior to independence.
In 1986, Wole Soyinka became the first post-independence African writer to win the Nobel Prize in literature. Algerian-born Albert Camus had been awarded the 1957 prize.
references
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_literature#Colonial_African_literature, cited on 16/04/12
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254 Camp Mulla
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254 Top of the Topest +others
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Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
Source features
These are related to the source (vocal fold vibration that sustains voiced sounds or a turbulent airstream that sustains many voiceless sounds).
The feature [voice] is self-explanatory (with or without vocal fold vibration). The feature [spread glottis] is used to distinguish aspirated from unaspirated stops (aspirated stops are initially produced with the vocal folds drawn apart). We can therefore make the following distinctions:
voiced
spread glottis
p
-
-
b
+
-
pʰ
-
+
The [strident] feature is used by Halle and Clements for those fricatives produced with high-intensity fricative noise: supposedly labiodentals, alveolars, palato-alveolars, and uvulars are [+strident]. There seems to be little acoustic phonetic basis to the claim that labiodentals and alveolars pattern acoustically (as opposed to dentals). In this course, we will use Ladefoged's feature [sibilant] which is defined by Ladefoged (1971) in acoustic terms as including those fricatives with 'large amounts of acoustic energy at high frequencies' i.e. [s ʃ z ʒ]. The English affricates would therefore also be [+sibilant]:
cont
sibilant
oral stops
-
-
affricates
-
+
sibilant fricatives
+
+
non-sibilant fricatives
+
-
This may be an oversimplification, however, as the alveolar oral stops might also be described as sibilant, so sibilant isn't sufficient to separate oral stops and affricates (and we still need spread glottis).
These are related to the source (vocal fold vibration that sustains voiced sounds or a turbulent airstream that sustains many voiceless sounds).
The feature [voice] is self-explanatory (with or without vocal fold vibration). The feature [spread glottis] is used to distinguish aspirated from unaspirated stops (aspirated stops are initially produced with the vocal folds drawn apart). We can therefore make the following distinctions:
voiced
spread glottis
p
-
-
b
+
-
pʰ
-
+
The [strident] feature is used by Halle and Clements for those fricatives produced with high-intensity fricative noise: supposedly labiodentals, alveolars, palato-alveolars, and uvulars are [+strident]. There seems to be little acoustic phonetic basis to the claim that labiodentals and alveolars pattern acoustically (as opposed to dentals). In this course, we will use Ladefoged's feature [sibilant] which is defined by Ladefoged (1971) in acoustic terms as including those fricatives with 'large amounts of acoustic energy at high frequencies' i.e. [s ʃ z ʒ]. The English affricates would therefore also be [+sibilant]:
cont
sibilant
oral stops
-
-
affricates
-
+
sibilant fricatives
+
+
non-sibilant fricatives
+
-
This may be an oversimplification, however, as the alveolar oral stops might also be described as sibilant, so sibilant isn't sufficient to separate oral stops and affricates (and we still need spread glottis).
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
An overview of commonly used distinctive features
The features described in Halle & Clements (1983) have been commonly used in the phonology literature in their analyses of the sound patterns of various languages. They incorporate many insights of the original features devised by Jakobson (1941) but are mostly based on those of the Sound Pattern of English, taking into account some modifications suggested by Halle & Stevens (1971). Most of these are also discussed below.
i. Major class features
Four features [syll], [cons], [son], [cont] (syllabic, consonantal, sonorant, continuant) are used to divide up speech sounds into major classes, as follows. Note that [syll] means "syllabic" (syllable nucleus), [cons] means "consonantal", [son] means "sonorant" (periodic low frequency energy), [cont] means "continuant" (continuous airflow through oral cavity), and [delrel] means delayed release (release is not "delayed", but there is a longer aspiration phase than oral stops - nb. voice onset is what's actually delayed).
syll
cons
son
cont
delrel
vowels
+
-
+
+
0
oral stops
-
+
-
-
-
affricates
-
+
-
-
+
nasal stops
-
+
+
-
0
fricatives
-
+
-
+
0
liquids
-
+
+
+
0
semi-vowels
-
-
+
+
0
Note that the approximants have been divided into liquids (eg. in English /r, l/) and semi-vowels (eg. in English /w, j/). In this, and most other distinctive feature sets derived from Chomsky and Halle. Semi-vowels (being [-syll, -cons]) form a class of sounds intermediate between vowels ([+syll]) and consonants ([+cons]). The approximants can be defined as a class by the features [-syll, +son, +cont] and can be further sub-divided into liquids and semi-vowels using the [cons] feature. Note that "0" means irrelevant feature for these classes of sounds (there's nothing to release).
We also have a feature [nasal] which, as its name suggests, separates nasal from oral sounds. In the above table, [nasal] would have been redundant as the nasal stops are already defined uniquely as [-syll, +cons, +son, -cont] (ie. as sonorant stops). However. the feature [nasal] is required to define nasal stops, nasalised vowels and nasalised approximants as a single natural class.
The features described in Halle & Clements (1983) have been commonly used in the phonology literature in their analyses of the sound patterns of various languages. They incorporate many insights of the original features devised by Jakobson (1941) but are mostly based on those of the Sound Pattern of English, taking into account some modifications suggested by Halle & Stevens (1971). Most of these are also discussed below.
i. Major class features
Four features [syll], [cons], [son], [cont] (syllabic, consonantal, sonorant, continuant) are used to divide up speech sounds into major classes, as follows. Note that [syll] means "syllabic" (syllable nucleus), [cons] means "consonantal", [son] means "sonorant" (periodic low frequency energy), [cont] means "continuant" (continuous airflow through oral cavity), and [delrel] means delayed release (release is not "delayed", but there is a longer aspiration phase than oral stops - nb. voice onset is what's actually delayed).
syll
cons
son
cont
delrel
vowels
+
-
+
+
0
oral stops
-
+
-
-
-
affricates
-
+
-
-
+
nasal stops
-
+
+
-
0
fricatives
-
+
-
+
0
liquids
-
+
+
+
0
semi-vowels
-
-
+
+
0
Note that the approximants have been divided into liquids (eg. in English /r, l/) and semi-vowels (eg. in English /w, j/). In this, and most other distinctive feature sets derived from Chomsky and Halle. Semi-vowels (being [-syll, -cons]) form a class of sounds intermediate between vowels ([+syll]) and consonants ([+cons]). The approximants can be defined as a class by the features [-syll, +son, +cont] and can be further sub-divided into liquids and semi-vowels using the [cons] feature. Note that "0" means irrelevant feature for these classes of sounds (there's nothing to release).
We also have a feature [nasal] which, as its name suggests, separates nasal from oral sounds. In the above table, [nasal] would have been redundant as the nasal stops are already defined uniquely as [-syll, +cons, +son, -cont] (ie. as sonorant stops). However. the feature [nasal] is required to define nasal stops, nasalised vowels and nasalised approximants as a single natural class.
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
Phonetic interpretation
According to Jakobson (1941), the distinctive features should have definable articulatory and acoustic correlates. For example, [+nasal] implies a lowering of the soft-palate and also an increase in the ratio of energy in the low to the high part of the spectrum. Chomsky & Halle (1968) abandoned the acoustic definitions of phonological features (inappropriately, as Ladefoged, 1971 and many others have argued: for example [f] and [x] are related acoustically but not articulatorily and they participated in the sound change by which the pronunciation of 'gh' spellings in English changed from a velar to a labiodental fricative e.g. 'laugh', [lɑx]→[lɑf]).
Many of the features are defined loosely in phonetic terms. This is perhaps to be expected. Phonology has established highly abstract representations to explain sound alternations (i.e. to factor out what are considered redundant or predictable aspects of a word's pronunciation) and this abstraction is partly opposed to the principle in phonetics of describing in articulatory and acoustic terms the characteristics of speech sound production that are shared by linguistic communities. Nevertheless, if phonology is to be related to how words are actually pronounced, the features are required to have at least some phonetic basis to them.
According to Jakobson (1941), the distinctive features should have definable articulatory and acoustic correlates. For example, [+nasal] implies a lowering of the soft-palate and also an increase in the ratio of energy in the low to the high part of the spectrum. Chomsky & Halle (1968) abandoned the acoustic definitions of phonological features (inappropriately, as Ladefoged, 1971 and many others have argued: for example [f] and [x] are related acoustically but not articulatorily and they participated in the sound change by which the pronunciation of 'gh' spellings in English changed from a velar to a labiodental fricative e.g. 'laugh', [lɑx]→[lɑf]).
Many of the features are defined loosely in phonetic terms. This is perhaps to be expected. Phonology has established highly abstract representations to explain sound alternations (i.e. to factor out what are considered redundant or predictable aspects of a word's pronunciation) and this abstraction is partly opposed to the principle in phonetics of describing in articulatory and acoustic terms the characteristics of speech sound production that are shared by linguistic communities. Nevertheless, if phonology is to be related to how words are actually pronounced, the features are required to have at least some phonetic basis to them.
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
c) Binarity
We have assumed that features are binary (a segment is either nasal or it is not) following Jakobson's (1941) original formulation of distinctive feature theory and this premise was adopted in Chomsky & Halle's (1968) Sound Pattern of English. There were many reasons why Jakobson (1941) advocated a binary approach. Firstly, as we have seen, this is the most efficient way of reducing the phoneme inventory of a language. Secondly, he argued that most phonological oppositions are binary in nature (e.g. sounds either are or are not produced with a lowered soft-palate and nasalisation) and he even proposed that it has a physiological basis i.e. that nerve fibers have an 'all-or-none' response. But the binary principal is certainly not adopted by all linguists, and many phoneticians in particular have argued that some features should be n-ary (where "n" is any relevant number of degrees or levels - see for example, Ladefoged's 1993 treatment of vowel height which is 4-valued to reflect the distinction between close, half-close, half-open, and open vowels).
We have assumed that features are binary (a segment is either nasal or it is not) following Jakobson's (1941) original formulation of distinctive feature theory and this premise was adopted in Chomsky & Halle's (1968) Sound Pattern of English. There were many reasons why Jakobson (1941) advocated a binary approach. Firstly, as we have seen, this is the most efficient way of reducing the phoneme inventory of a language. Secondly, he argued that most phonological oppositions are binary in nature (e.g. sounds either are or are not produced with a lowered soft-palate and nasalisation) and he even proposed that it has a physiological basis i.e. that nerve fibers have an 'all-or-none' response. But the binary principal is certainly not adopted by all linguists, and many phoneticians in particular have argued that some features should be n-ary (where "n" is any relevant number of degrees or levels - see for example, Ladefoged's 1993 treatment of vowel height which is 4-valued to reflect the distinction between close, half-close, half-open, and open vowels).
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
b) Economy
In phonology, and particularly in Generative Phonology, we are often concerned to eliminate redundancy from the sound pattern of a language or to explain it by rule. Distinctive features allow the possibility of writing rules using a considerably smaller number of units than the phonemes of a language. Consider for example, a hypothetical language that has 12 consonant and 3 vowel phonemes:
p t k
b d ɡ
m n ŋ
f s ç
i u
ɑ
We could refer to all these phonemes with perhaps just 6 distinctive features - a reduction of over half the number of phoneme units which also allows natural classes to be established amongst them:
[+voice] b d ɡ m n ŋ i u ɑ
[+nasal] m n ŋ
[+high] i u k ɡ ŋ ç
[+labial] p m b u f
[+anterior] p t b d m n f s
[+cont] f s ç i u ɑ
At the same time, each phoneme is uniquely represented, as shown by the distinctive feature matrix:
In phonology, and particularly in Generative Phonology, we are often concerned to eliminate redundancy from the sound pattern of a language or to explain it by rule. Distinctive features allow the possibility of writing rules using a considerably smaller number of units than the phonemes of a language. Consider for example, a hypothetical language that has 12 consonant and 3 vowel phonemes:
p t k
b d ɡ
m n ŋ
f s ç
i u
ɑ
We could refer to all these phonemes with perhaps just 6 distinctive features - a reduction of over half the number of phoneme units which also allows natural classes to be established amongst them:
[+voice] b d ɡ m n ŋ i u ɑ
[+nasal] m n ŋ
[+high] i u k ɡ ŋ ç
[+labial] p m b u f
[+anterior] p t b d m n f s
[+cont] f s ç i u ɑ
At the same time, each phoneme is uniquely represented, as shown by the distinctive feature matrix:
Chomsky and Halle (1968-1983)
a) Features establish natural classes
Using distinctive features, phonemes are broken down into smaller components. For example, a nasal phoneme /m/ might be represented as a feature matrix [+ sonorant, -continuant, +voice, +nasal, +labial] (nb. you will often see the features of the matrices arranged in columns in phonology books -- this is exactly equivalent to the 'horizontal' representation used here). By representing /m/ in this way, we are saying both something about its phonetic characteristics (it's a sonorant because, like vowels, its acoustic waveform has low frequency periodic energy; it's a non-continuant because the airflow is totally interrupted in the oral cavity etc.), but also importantly, the aim is to choose distinctive features that establish natural classes of phonemes. For example, since all the other nasal consonants and nasalised vowels (if a language has them) have feature matrices that are defined as [+nasal], we can refer to all these segments in a single simple phonological by making the rule apply to [+nasal] segments. Similarly, if we want our rules to refer to all the approximants and high vowels, we might define this natural class by [+sonorant, +high].
The advantage of this approach is readily apparent in writing phonological rules. For example, we might want a rule which makes approximants voiceless when they follow aspirated stops in English. If we could not define phonemes in terms of distinctive features, we would have to have separate rules, such as [l] becomes voiceless after /k/ ('claim'), /r/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('cry'), /w/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('quite'), /j/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('cute'), and then the same again for all the approximants that can follow /p/ and /t/. If we define phonemes as bundles of features, we can state the rule more succinctly as e.g. [+sonorant, -syllabic, +continuant] sounds (i.e. all approximants) become [+spread glottis] (aspirated) after sounds which are [+spread glottis] (aspirated).
If the features are well chosen, it should be possible to refer to natural classes of phonemes with a small number of features. For example, [p t k] form a natural class of voiceless stops in most languages: we can often refer to these and no others with just two features, [-continuant, -voiced]. On the other hand, [m] and [d] are a much less natural class (ie. few sound changes and few, if any, phonological rules, apply to them both and appropriately it is impossible in most feature systems to refer to these sounds and no others in a single feature matrix).
Using distinctive features, phonemes are broken down into smaller components. For example, a nasal phoneme /m/ might be represented as a feature matrix [+ sonorant, -continuant, +voice, +nasal, +labial] (nb. you will often see the features of the matrices arranged in columns in phonology books -- this is exactly equivalent to the 'horizontal' representation used here). By representing /m/ in this way, we are saying both something about its phonetic characteristics (it's a sonorant because, like vowels, its acoustic waveform has low frequency periodic energy; it's a non-continuant because the airflow is totally interrupted in the oral cavity etc.), but also importantly, the aim is to choose distinctive features that establish natural classes of phonemes. For example, since all the other nasal consonants and nasalised vowels (if a language has them) have feature matrices that are defined as [+nasal], we can refer to all these segments in a single simple phonological by making the rule apply to [+nasal] segments. Similarly, if we want our rules to refer to all the approximants and high vowels, we might define this natural class by [+sonorant, +high].
The advantage of this approach is readily apparent in writing phonological rules. For example, we might want a rule which makes approximants voiceless when they follow aspirated stops in English. If we could not define phonemes in terms of distinctive features, we would have to have separate rules, such as [l] becomes voiceless after /k/ ('claim'), /r/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('cry'), /w/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('quite'), /j/ becomes voiceless after /k/ ('cute'), and then the same again for all the approximants that can follow /p/ and /t/. If we define phonemes as bundles of features, we can state the rule more succinctly as e.g. [+sonorant, -syllabic, +continuant] sounds (i.e. all approximants) become [+spread glottis] (aspirated) after sounds which are [+spread glottis] (aspirated).
If the features are well chosen, it should be possible to refer to natural classes of phonemes with a small number of features. For example, [p t k] form a natural class of voiceless stops in most languages: we can often refer to these and no others with just two features, [-continuant, -voiced]. On the other hand, [m] and [d] are a much less natural class (ie. few sound changes and few, if any, phonological rules, apply to them both and appropriately it is impossible in most feature systems to refer to these sounds and no others in a single feature matrix).
Concluding the Position of Foucault and Barthes
Foucault and Barthes argue in favour of the downfall of the authority of a writer. Barthes outlines this when he writes: “To give a text an Author is to impose a limit on that text” . Whilst Foucault agrees with this statement, he tries more carefully to explain the irrelevance of an author, being wary of Barthes attempt to create a universal truth about the non-existence of the author, which Foucault recognises as a historical institution and one which cannot be swayed as easily as The Death of the Author suggests.
The essays of Barthes and Foucault remain prominent examples of post-structuralist theory.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCfgmzvN
The essays of Barthes and Foucault remain prominent examples of post-structuralist theory.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCfgmzvN
Reconciling the Author With the Text
To illustrate this point, Foucault develops what he describes as “the author function”. He argues that the author exists as the creator of a work but his individuality becomes irrelevant upon the coming together of the text, because it is language which defines a text; an author is simply a name, not a code of meanings.
Foucault maintains that the author himself is a character; a work of fiction, who, in the process of writing, adopts certain personas and emotions: “Everyone knows that, in a novel narrated in the first person, neither the first person pronoun, nor the present indicative refer exactly either to the writer or the moment in which he writes” .
This conclusion serves as an expansion upon Barthes original argument that: “The author is never more than the instance writing, just as I is nothing other than the instance saying I” . What is an Author? argues that a writer who acts with the same authenticity as a fictional character, carries the same authority that a reader would attribute to the characters the author creates.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCfXAWtP
Foucault maintains that the author himself is a character; a work of fiction, who, in the process of writing, adopts certain personas and emotions: “Everyone knows that, in a novel narrated in the first person, neither the first person pronoun, nor the present indicative refer exactly either to the writer or the moment in which he writes” .
This conclusion serves as an expansion upon Barthes original argument that: “The author is never more than the instance writing, just as I is nothing other than the instance saying I” . What is an Author? argues that a writer who acts with the same authenticity as a fictional character, carries the same authority that a reader would attribute to the characters the author creates.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCfXAWtP
Michel Foucault and 'What is an Author?'
Whilst Foucault’s conclusions coincide with the statement that “It is language which speaks, not the author”, he does not go so far as to say that the author, because of this, does not exist.
He accepts that literature must have an author and creator, just as it must have a reader: “One cannot turn a name into a pure and simple reference. It has other than indicative functions…When one says, ‘Aristotle’, one employs a word that is the equivalent of one or a series of definite descriptions” .
He respects that, as he writes, the name Aristotle brings with it the association that Aristotle wrote The Analytics, though also makes it clear that a description, by its nature, does not bring forth meaning. To say, for example, that F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote The Great Gatsby, does not help us understand the meaning of the language of the text, The Great Gatsby.
He accepts that literature must have an author and creator, just as it must have a reader: “One cannot turn a name into a pure and simple reference. It has other than indicative functions…When one says, ‘Aristotle’, one employs a word that is the equivalent of one or a series of definite descriptions” .
He respects that, as he writes, the name Aristotle brings with it the association that Aristotle wrote The Analytics, though also makes it clear that a description, by its nature, does not bring forth meaning. To say, for example, that F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote The Great Gatsby, does not help us understand the meaning of the language of the text, The Great Gatsby.
Roland Barthes -- The Death of the Author
Barthes outlines this clearly when he states: “In the multiplicity of writing, everything is to be disentangled, nothing deciphered…the space of writing is to be ranged over, not pierced” .
Simply, The Death of the Author argues that a reader gains nothing from a literary work if they know the feelings of the writer of the piece because a text becomes a text when it is put into writing; it is the text, purely because it comes into existence, not because it is created by an author and it is the language which gives it resonance.
This is the meaning behind Barthes’ assertion that: “It is language which speaks, not the author”.
Simply, The Death of the Author argues that a reader gains nothing from a literary work if they know the feelings of the writer of the piece because a text becomes a text when it is put into writing; it is the text, purely because it comes into existence, not because it is created by an author and it is the language which gives it resonance.
This is the meaning behind Barthes’ assertion that: “It is language which speaks, not the author”.
Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault 1
In 'What is an Author?' and 'The Death of the Author' Michel Foucault and Roland Barthes make seminal contributions to literary theory.
In both The Death of the Author and What is an Author? – written by Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault respectively - the basic premise is the same: a literary text is defined on its own terms by its own language; literature cannot be read and decoded in relation to its author.
Where the problem begins is that Roland Barthes, in The Death of the Author states that “the birth of the reader must come at the cost of the death of the author”, yet What is an Author? has Michel Foucault deconstructing the myth of the author and authorship, and investigating the relationship between the author and the work.
In the respective essays, Foucault and Barthes draw the same conclusion – that applied authorship distorts and limits a text – but Barthes denies the existence of the author, whilst Foucault undermines the author’s influence and authority.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCel3HrX
In both The Death of the Author and What is an Author? – written by Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault respectively - the basic premise is the same: a literary text is defined on its own terms by its own language; literature cannot be read and decoded in relation to its author.
Where the problem begins is that Roland Barthes, in The Death of the Author states that “the birth of the reader must come at the cost of the death of the author”, yet What is an Author? has Michel Foucault deconstructing the myth of the author and authorship, and investigating the relationship between the author and the work.
In the respective essays, Foucault and Barthes draw the same conclusion – that applied authorship distorts and limits a text – but Barthes denies the existence of the author, whilst Foucault undermines the author’s influence and authority.
Read more at Suite101: Author Theory --The Work of Barthes and Foucault: What is the Position and Importance of the Author in Literature? | Suite101.com http://chris-woolfrey.suite101.com/author-theory-the-work-of-barthes-and-foucault-a82687#ixzz1sCel3HrX
Postcolonial Kenya 3
A certain level of irony presents itself due to the terms of Howlands sojourn in Kenya. He aims to escape the memories of warfare and brutality imposed upon him by his mother country, yet settles in Kenya to brutalize with identical violence. His only drive in life of acquiring and cultivating the “wild and chartered” lands of Africa helps balance his shell-shocked mind, yet Ngugi shows in Howlands avarice that inevitably effects of war will trickle down even years after a war’s end. Indeed, the concept of a “trickle down” effect with war aftermath presents itself boldly in a generational sense. Boro, Ngotho’s eldest living son, spurs conflict in the land of Kipanga due to his rash behavior and bitter hatred of white oppression. His experiences in the heat of battlefields and the trauma of witnessing his brother’s death cloud any rationality the might have aimed at uniting the Kikuyu towards a goal. When looking at histology through the scope of time it is clear that the alternatives to the Mau Mau violence where available. The British relations with India and the works of Gandhi are proof of this concept (Byford). Ngotho does not understand his son, even fears him because of his experiences in World War II, and acts rashly in a worker’s strike to win his son’s approval. The patriarchal tribe of Ngotho’s youth has truly been destroyed due to the economic, social, and political pressures applied by colonization. When all the dust settles, inevitably, Njoroge bears the responsibility of holding together the family. As children lose respect for parents due to their ineffective rejection of colonization, the colonization turns the normal family structure of the Kikuyu backwards and allows the rash youth to dictate the conditions of the cultures’s future. Indeed, it is said that the only way for the Kikuyu to survive would be to follow tribal traditions (Gikandi). Ngugi strips away Njoroge’s respect for the solidarity of his family, and even teaches the boys to feel ashamed of his social status. Despite this Njoroge still thrieves because he sees the hope of a better future. He believes with all his heart that with an education, anything becomes possible no matter what the state of the world. Njoroge stands as an example of what happens to the idealistic that cannot accept reality. Ngugi encourages the reader to admire Njoroge for his fortitude and optimism, yet makes the audience bear witness to the hero’s downfall. By choosing to portray his protagonist as such, Ngugi forces a realization that though all factors in a personalty seem naturally to lead to a culmination of well-deserved success, the outside factors, such as an oppressive political climate will render failure in even the most strong of characters. The world Ngugi creates is one in which the naïve and true or heart are trampled by the fiscally savvy. Through this he makes a bitter statement of the bleak opportunies available to Africans when weighed down under the heavy curtain of colonial oppression. Ngugi reveals his views with biting wit and pragmatism, and stands as quite an effective writer because of this willingness to reveal a complete deterioration of the protagonist. Ngugi couples this act of realism with a few key moments of poignant symbolism to craft the masterpiece of Weep Not, Child. One instance of this occurs in a description of the children born of African mothers and Italian prisoners of World War I: “They were ugly and grew and some grew up to have small wounds all over their body and especially around their mouth so that flies followed them all the time and at all places. Some people said it was punishment…[for sleeping] with white men who ruled them and treated them badly” (Ngugi 24). Ngugi here imparts a grotesque image to symbolize the manifested evils of colonization. Interestingly, he ties this instance of interbreeding with the African tribal mythology prevalent throughout the novel. The people view this as a curse, or punishment, from their ancient Gods for allowing the oppression to occur. Another symbol of white oppression exists in Njoroge’s description of the road built by the Italian war prisoners that runs through Kenya. Njoroge describes it as so long that you see no end or beginning to it, much in the manner that Njoroge cannot recall the beginning of colonization nor imagine an end to it. Also he describes puddles of water on the road, which makes you thirsty until you realize they were only illusions and not real water. Njoroge understands this phenomenon keenly when he states at the novels ends, “My tomorrow was just an illusion” (Ngugi 175). Disillusionment and disappointment prevails in this novel and a young boy’s journey into manhood. Sadly, Njoroge is forced to accept that there is no hope for his generation. Sweet promises of prosperity from the hands of modernization collide with the Mau Mau’s passionate battle cries. Idealistic like Njoroge who say, “weep not” are buried in the rift between these powers because they cannot choose a side. Ngugi points the oppressive power of colonialism to erase, alter, divide and destroy an entire race of people.
Postcolonial Kenya 2
Soon after Njoroge’s dreams are smashed when the vengeful Jacobo places blame of Mau Mau connections on Ngotho and Mr.Howlands has Njoroge removed from school for questioning. Both father and son are brutally beaten before release and Ngotho is left barely alive. Njoroge’s brothers assassinate both Mr.Howlands and Jacobo and Njoroge is left as the sole provider to his two mothers. Doomed to failure, he has lost all hope of returning to school, has lost faith in God, and when he finally pledges his love to Mwihaki, she is too afraid to marry him. At this the idealistic protagonist of Weep Not, Child, can take no more, and fails an attempt at suicide at the novel’s closure. The main contention of Ngugi against colonialism emerges clearly from this narrative. Here, we witness a boy full of hope for a bright new future, full of love for his family, joy at the prospect of an education, yet still anchored with a strong sense of cultural identity to support him through his endeavors. Ngugi seems to apply a sociological experiment on the protagonist when one by one taking away all that sustains his strength. Naturally the first enabling quality stripped away stands as the most irrevocably destroyed—tribal identity. Njoroge finds his life full of conflict. He stands with one foot in western modernism and the other in a world awed by the mythologies of olden times. He must accept Christian faith as a prerequisite to a European education, yet yearns to know the ancient stories of his origin. One instance where this notion prevails is when Njoroge stands before his class, a class aimed at learning western culture and language, and is asked by his teacher to tell a story. Njoroge knows many stories passed down by his mothers, but becomes frozen; in fact, devastated that he does not remember a single one. Ngugi here makes the first of several statements about Africans choosing between two social modes and failing when trying to live in both. Going to school with more westernized children teaches Njoroge to feel for the first time shame of his social position. He avoids walking past Mwihaki and hides so that she does not see his worn calico smock. Before attending school the boy knew nothing of wearing shorts and shirts, and so, had no concept of shame. Colonialism imparted desirable new technologies to the Kikuyu people, yet in the same hand brought a sense of inferiority never before felt by the culture. According to Simon Gikandi of the University of Michigan, the Kikuyu people where not prone to individualism. They, as a culture, saw life as conducted according to the ‘basic rhythm of nature’; [in Gikandi’s view], the African encounter with colonial modernity was a catastrophic event (Gikandi). Another manner in which Ngugi deteriorates his protagonist occurs after Ngotho’s attack on Jacobo at the worker’s strike. To understand the weight of this event it is first imperative to examine the circumstances of generational divides between the youth brought up under colonial rule and the elders of tribal heritage. Ngugi aims to reveal the duality of the oppressing force. Many white settlers were colonizing to avoid conflicts of war in Great Britain.
Postcolonial Kenya 1
A notable amount of literary works produced in Africa today follow the postcolonial literary mode. This mode of writing highlights the affects of the imperialistic colonization of the pre-World War I period. Postcolonial literature aims to give a voice to the colonized peoples while promoting their language and cultural ideals and rejecting the previously enforced ideals of Western civilization. Weep Not, Child by James Ngugi explores such postcolonial themes in its examination of life during the Mau Mau Revolution. Weep Not, Child essentially stands as the tale of a young boy of Kikuyu tribal heritage growing up in the squatter lifestyle imposed by British rule. Njoroge’s family is by no means wealthy. They live on the land of Jacobo, a shrewd and opportunistic African made rich by his dealings with white settlers, namely Mr.Howlands, the most predominate and powerful land owner in all of Kipanga. What Njoroge’s family does possess, however, is to the tribal mentality even sweeter than economic power—respect. Ngotho, Njoroge’s father, commands respect from the community for his ability to hold his family together. Ngotho takes much pride in the land, and tends Mr.Howlands crops to his utmost ability not out of loyal service, but because he believes in prophesies that the land will someday return to the Kikuyu people. Ngotho tries to fulfill this prophesy by respecting the land and also by giving his son an education so that Njoroge may someday lead the oppressed Kikuyu to victory against British rule. Njoroge thus grows up very differently from his brothers Kamau and Boro. Kamau works as an apprentice to a carpenter and feels firsthand the lowered expectations and menial labor that he must accept for his life. Boro, the eldest living son, is haunted by his experiences of forced service in World War II and witnessing the death of his elder brother to white men. Njoroge, though young, feels the full burden of his family’s future on his shoulders and is grateful for an education. He devotes himself to an idealistic outlook and Christian faith which follows him throughout his childhood and into adolescence. Njoroge perseveres through family tragedies and pressures due to his relationship with his dear friend and classmate Mwihaki, the daughter of Jacobo, who helps him adapt to school. When Ngotho attempts to attack Jacobo in a heated workers strike, Njoroge’s family is forced to move and Ngotho loses his job. Njoroge’s education is thereafter funded by his brothers who have lost all respect for their father. While Njoroge attends high school he has a strange encounter with Mr. Howlands’ son Stephen and together they discuss the absurdities of inequality.
Postcolonial Kenya
A notable amount of literary works produced in Africa today follow the postcolonial literary mode. This mode of writing highlights the affects of the imperialistic colonization of the pre-World War I period. Postcolonial literature aims to give a voice to the colonized peoples while promoting their language and cultural ideals and rejecting the previously enforced ideals of Western civilization. Weep Not, Child by James Ngugi explores such postcolonial themes in its examination of life during the Mau Mau Revolution. Weep Not, Child essentially stands as the tale of a young boy of Kikuyu tribal heritage growing up in the squatter lifestyle imposed by British rule. Njoroge’s family is by no means wealthy. They live on the land of Jacobo, a shrewd and opportunistic African made rich by his dealings with white settlers, namely Mr.Howlands, the most predominate and powerful land owner in all of Kipanga. What Njoroge’s family does possess, however, is to the tribal mentality even sweeter than economic power—respect. Ngotho, Njoroge’s father, commands respect from the community for his ability to hold his family together. Ngotho takes much pride in the land, and tends Mr.Howlands crops to his utmost ability not out of loyal service, but because he believes in prophesies that the land will someday return to the Kikuyu people. Ngotho tries to fulfill this prophesy by respecting the land and also by giving his son an education so that Njoroge may someday lead the oppressed Kikuyu to victory against British rule. Njoroge thus grows up very differently from his brothers Kamau and Boro. Kamau works as an apprentice to a carpenter and feels firsthand the lowered expectations and menial labor that he must accept for his life. Boro, the eldest living son, is haunted by his experiences of forced service in World War II and witnessing the death of his elder brother to white men. Njoroge, though young, feels the full burden of his family’s future on his shoulders and is grateful for an education. He devotes himself to an idealistic outlook and Christian faith which follows him throughout his childhood and into adolescence. Njoroge perseveres through family tragedies and pressures due to his relationship with his dear friend and classmate Mwihaki, the daughter of Jacobo, who helps him adapt to school. When Ngotho attempts to attack Jacobo in a heated workers strike, Njoroge’s family is forced to move and Ngotho loses his job. Njoroge’s education is thereafter funded by his brothers who have lost all respect for their father. While Njoroge attends high school he has a strange encounter with Mr. Howlands’ son Stephen and together they discuss the absurdities of inequality. Soon after Njoroge’s dreams are smashed when the vengeful Jacobo places blame of Mau Mau connections on Ngotho and Mr.Howlands has Njoroge removed from school for questioning. Both father and son are brutally beaten before release and Ngotho is left barely alive. Njoroge’s brothers assassinate both Mr.Howlands and Jacobo and Njoroge is left as the sole provider to his two mothers. Doomed to failure, he has lost all hope of returning to school, has lost faith in God, and when he finally pledges his love to Mwihaki, she is too afraid to marry him. At this the idealistic protagonist of Weep Not, Child, can take no more, and fails an attempt at suicide at the novel’s closure. The main contention of Ngugi against colonialism emerges clearly from this narrative. Here, we witness a boy full of hope for a bright new future, full of love for his family, joy at the prospect of an education, yet still anchored with a strong sense of cultural identity to support him through his endeavors. Ngugi seems to apply a sociological experiment on the protagonist when one by one taking away all that sustains his strength. Naturally the first enabling quality stripped away stands as the most irrevocably destroyed—tribal identity. Njoroge finds his life full of conflict. He stands with one foot in western modernism and the other in a world awed by the mythologies of olden times. He must accept Christian faith as a prerequisite to a European education, yet yearns to know the ancient stories of his origin. One instance where this notion prevails is when Njoroge stands before his class, a class aimed at learning western culture and language, and is asked by his teacher to tell a story. Njoroge knows many stories passed down by his mothers, but becomes frozen; in fact, devastated that he does not remember a single one. Ngugi here makes the first of several statements about Africans choosing between two social modes and failing when trying to live in both. Going to school with more westernized children teaches Njoroge to feel for the first time shame of his social position. He avoids walking past Mwihaki and hides so that she does not see his worn calico smock. Before attending school the boy knew nothing of wearing shorts and shirts, and so, had no concept of shame. Colonialism imparted desirable new technologies to the Kikuyu people, yet in the same hand brought a sense of inferiority never before felt by the culture. According to Simon Gikandi of the University of Michigan, the Kikuyu people where not prone to individualism. They, as a culture, saw life as conducted according to the ‘basic rhythm of nature’; [in Gikandi’s view], the African encounter with colonial modernity was a catastrophic event (Gikandi). Another manner in which Ngugi deteriorates his protagonist occurs after Ngotho’s attack on Jacobo at the worker’s strike. To understand the weight of this event it is first imperative to examine the circumstances of generational divides between the youth brought up under colonial rule and the elders of tribal heritage. Ngugi aims to reveal the duality of the oppressing force. Many white settlers were colonizing to avoid conflicts of war in Great Britain. A certain level of irony presents itself due to the terms of Howlands sojourn in Kenya. He aims to escape the memories of warfare and brutality imposed upon him by his mother country, yet settles in Kenya to brutalize with identical violence. His only drive in life of acquiring and cultivating the “wild and chartered” lands of Africa helps balance his shell-shocked mind, yet Ngugi shows in Howlands avarice that inevitably effects of war will trickle down even years after a war’s end. Indeed, the concept of a “trickle down” effect with war aftermath presents itself boldly in a generational sense. Boro, Ngotho’s eldest living son, spurs conflict in the land of Kipanga due to his rash behavior and bitter hatred of white oppression. His experiences in the heat of battlefields and the trauma of witnessing his brother’s death cloud any rationality the might have aimed at uniting the Kikuyu towards a goal. When looking at histology through the scope of time it is clear that the alternatives to the Mau Mau violence where available. The British relations with India and the works of Gandhi are proof of this concept (Byford). Ngotho does not understand his son, even fears him because of his experiences in World War II, and acts rashly in a worker’s strike to win his son’s approval. The patriarchal tribe of Ngotho’s youth has truly been destroyed due to the economic, social, and political pressures applied by colonization. When all the dust settles, inevitably, Njoroge bears the responsibility of holding together the family. As children lose respect for parents due to their ineffective rejection of colonization, the colonization turns the normal family structure of the Kikuyu backwards and allows the rash youth to dictate the conditions of the cultures’s future. Indeed, it is said that the only way for the Kikuyu to survive would be to follow tribal traditions (Gikandi). Ngugi strips away Njoroge’s respect for the solidarity of his family, and even teaches the boys to feel ashamed of his social status. Despite this Njoroge still thrieves because he sees the hope of a better future. He believes with all his heart that with an education, anything becomes possible no matter what the state of the world. Njoroge stands as an example of what happens to the idealistic that cannot accept reality. Ngugi encourages the reader to admire Njoroge for his fortitude and optimism, yet makes the audience bear witness to the hero’s downfall. By choosing to portray his protagonist as such, Ngugi forces a realization that though all factors in a personalty seem naturally to lead to a culmination of well-deserved success, the outside factors, such as an oppressive political climate will render failure in even the most strong of characters. The world Ngugi creates is one in which the naïve and true or heart are trampled by the fiscally savvy. Through this he makes a bitter statement of the bleak opportunies available to Africans when weighed down under the heavy curtain of colonial oppression. Ngugi reveals his views with biting wit and pragmatism, and stands as quite an effective writer because of this willingness to reveal a complete deterioration of the protagonist. Ngugi couples this act of realism with a few key moments of poignant symbolism to craft the masterpiece of Weep Not, Child. One instance of this occurs in a description of the children born of African mothers and Italian prisoners of World War I: “They were ugly and grew and some grew up to have small wounds all over their body and especially around their mouth so that flies followed them all the time and at all places. Some people said it was punishment…[for sleeping] with white men who ruled them and treated them badly” (Ngugi 24). Ngugi here imparts a grotesque image to symbolize the manifested evils of colonization. Interestingly, he ties this instance of interbreeding with the African tribal mythology prevalent throughout the novel. The people view this as a curse, or punishment, from their ancient Gods for allowing the oppression to occur. Another symbol of white oppression exists in Njoroge’s description of the road built by the Italian war prisoners that runs through Kenya. Njoroge describes it as so long that you see no end or beginning to it, much in the manner that Njoroge cannot recall the beginning of colonization nor imagine an end to it. Also he describes puddles of water on the road, which makes you thirsty until you realize they were only illusions and not real water. Njoroge understands this phenomenon keenly when he states at the novels ends, “My tomorrow was just an illusion” (Ngugi 175). Disillusionment and disappointment prevails in this novel and a young boy’s journey into manhood. Sadly, Njoroge is forced to accept that there is no hope for his generation. Sweet promises of prosperity from the hands of modernization collide with the Mau Mau’s passionate battle cries. Idealistic like Njoroge who say, “weep not” are buried in the rift between these powers because they cannot choose a side. Ngugi points the oppressive power of colonialism to erase, alter, divide and destroy an entire race of people.
Post colonial literature / colonial literature
Colonial African literature
The African works best known in the West from the period of colonization and the slave trade are primarily slave narratives, such as Olaudah Equiano's The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789).
In the colonial period, Africans exposed to Western languages began to write in those tongues. In 1911, Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford (also known as Ekra-Agiman) of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) published what is probably the first African novel written in English, Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation.[9] Although the work moves between fiction and political advocacy, its publication and positive reviews in the Western press mark a watershed moment in African literature.
During this period, African plays began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English-language African play, The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongqawuse the Liberator in 1935. In 1962, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, The Black Hermit, a cautionary tale about "tribalism" (racism between African tribes).
African literature in the late colonial period (between the end of World War I and independence) increasingly showed themes of liberation, independence, and (among Africans in French-controlled territories) négritude. One of the leaders of the négritude movement, the poet and eventual President of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor, published in 1948 the first anthology of French-language poetry written by Africans, Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française (Anthology of the New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French Language), featuring a preface by the French existentialist writer Jean-Paul Sartre.[10]
Nor was the African literary clerisy of this time relatively divorced from the issues that it tackled. Many, indeed, suffered deeply and directly: censured for casting aside his artistic responsibilities in order to participate actively in warfare, Christopher Okigbo was killed in battle for Biafra against the Nigerian movement of the 1960s' civil war; Mongane Wally Serote was detained under South Africa's Terrorism Act No 83 of 1967 between 1969 and 1970, and subsequently released without ever having stood trial; in London in 1970, his countryman Arthur Norje committed suicide; Malawi's Jack Mapanje was incarcerated with neither charge nor trial because of an off-hand remark at a university pub; and, in 1995, Ken Saro-Wiwa died by the gallows of the Nigerian junta.
Postcolonial African literature
With liberation and increased literacy since most African nations gained their independence in the 1950s and 1960s, African literature has grown dramatically in quantity and in recognition, with numerous African works appearing in Western academic curricula and on "best of" lists compiled at the end of the 20th century. African writers in this period wrote both in Western languages (notably English, French, and Portuguese) and in traditional African languages.
Ali A. Mazrui and others mention seven conflicts as themes: the clash between Africa's past and present, between tradition and modernity, between indigenous and foreign, between individualism and community, between socialism and capitalism, between development and self-reliance and between Africanity and humanity.[11] Other themes in this period include social problems such as corruption, the economic disparities in newly independent countries, and the rights and roles of women. Female writers are today far better represented in published African literature than they were prior to independence.
In 1986, Wole Soyinka became the first post-independence African writer to win the Nobel Prize in literature. Algerian-born Albert Camus had been awarded the 1957 prize.
references
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_literature#Colonial_African_literature, cited on 16/04/12
The African works best known in the West from the period of colonization and the slave trade are primarily slave narratives, such as Olaudah Equiano's The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789).
In the colonial period, Africans exposed to Western languages began to write in those tongues. In 1911, Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford (also known as Ekra-Agiman) of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) published what is probably the first African novel written in English, Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation.[9] Although the work moves between fiction and political advocacy, its publication and positive reviews in the Western press mark a watershed moment in African literature.
During this period, African plays began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English-language African play, The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongqawuse the Liberator in 1935. In 1962, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, The Black Hermit, a cautionary tale about "tribalism" (racism between African tribes).
African literature in the late colonial period (between the end of World War I and independence) increasingly showed themes of liberation, independence, and (among Africans in French-controlled territories) négritude. One of the leaders of the négritude movement, the poet and eventual President of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor, published in 1948 the first anthology of French-language poetry written by Africans, Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française (Anthology of the New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French Language), featuring a preface by the French existentialist writer Jean-Paul Sartre.[10]
Nor was the African literary clerisy of this time relatively divorced from the issues that it tackled. Many, indeed, suffered deeply and directly: censured for casting aside his artistic responsibilities in order to participate actively in warfare, Christopher Okigbo was killed in battle for Biafra against the Nigerian movement of the 1960s' civil war; Mongane Wally Serote was detained under South Africa's Terrorism Act No 83 of 1967 between 1969 and 1970, and subsequently released without ever having stood trial; in London in 1970, his countryman Arthur Norje committed suicide; Malawi's Jack Mapanje was incarcerated with neither charge nor trial because of an off-hand remark at a university pub; and, in 1995, Ken Saro-Wiwa died by the gallows of the Nigerian junta.
Postcolonial African literature
With liberation and increased literacy since most African nations gained their independence in the 1950s and 1960s, African literature has grown dramatically in quantity and in recognition, with numerous African works appearing in Western academic curricula and on "best of" lists compiled at the end of the 20th century. African writers in this period wrote both in Western languages (notably English, French, and Portuguese) and in traditional African languages.
Ali A. Mazrui and others mention seven conflicts as themes: the clash between Africa's past and present, between tradition and modernity, between indigenous and foreign, between individualism and community, between socialism and capitalism, between development and self-reliance and between Africanity and humanity.[11] Other themes in this period include social problems such as corruption, the economic disparities in newly independent countries, and the rights and roles of women. Female writers are today far better represented in published African literature than they were prior to independence.
In 1986, Wole Soyinka became the first post-independence African writer to win the Nobel Prize in literature. Algerian-born Albert Camus had been awarded the 1957 prize.
references
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_literature#Colonial_African_literature, cited on 16/04/12
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